Collecting Empirical Data - Dan Remenyi - Chapter Summary

Ch.8. Collecting Empirical Data

This chapter discusses various approaches to the acquisition of appropriate evidence which will be used to support or refute the theory or hypothesis developed by the researcher.
The chapter further considers the role of evidence in formulating a theory, as happens when using a grounded theory approach.

Why Collect Empirical Evidence?

Creating a Theory
A research project may, on the other hand, require evidence to be collected before a theoretical conjecture can be established and subsequently expressed in terms of hypotheses and empirical generalisations which can be formally tested, perhaps at a later date in another project.  
An important technique for doing this is grounded theory (Glaser and Strauss, 1967) in which the researcher uses empirical evidence to establish directly the variables, concepts and relationships which will be combined in the theory.

Understanding and Explaining Phenomena
From the phenomenological point of view, evidence may also be collected in a less instrumental way in order to understand and explain phenomena.
Here the researcher will have a much more open view as to how the evidence will be treated and what the evidence might reveal.

  Phenomenological evidence collection is considered in more detail in chapter 6.

Approaches to collecting Evidence
Several approaches to the collection of evidence are open to the researcher and the approach chosen will depend upon the research strategy and tactics being followed as well as the research question itself.

Primary and Secondary Sources
Evidence may be collected from primary or secondary sources.
Evidence is collected from a primary source when the researcher goes directly to the originator of the evidence.
An example would be an interview with the managing director about the organisation’s marketing strategy.

A secondary source would be information that is already published or available indirectly, so in the previous example the researcher might be able to obtain essentially the same information from the annual financial statements.
A number of databases containing useful evidence and information for research in business and management studies are available and the Internet and the World Wide Web are rapidly increasing in importance as source of secondary evidence in business and management research.    
                                       
Direct and Remote Evidence Collection
Primary evidence may be collected either directly or remotely.
In direct evidence collection the researcher interviews the informant personally and records the responses directly.
In contrast, remote evidence collection would correspond to a situation in which the informant completes a questionnaire without the interviewer being present.  There are of course intermediate approaches, for example where the researcher interviews the informant on the telephone or engages in a dialogue with him or her by E-mail.

Valid and Reliable Evidence
‘Triangulation’ which Loveridge (1990:18) defines as ‘using multiple methods to capture a sense of reality.’  
In business and management research the term triangulation refers to obtaining evidence from multiple sources to ensure that a biased view is not being obtained from one informant.

Evidence for Formal Testing
The formal testing of hypotheses and empirical generalisations usually requires numerical evidence that will be analysed statistically.
Numerical Evidence
Here the key issues are to identify the evidence required and to prepare an appropriate measuring instrument.

Non-Numerical Evidence
In these cases techniques such as content analysis may be used to convert qualitative evidence into numerical form so that standard statistical tests may be used in the analysis.
Converting qualitative evidence into a numerical form is problematical and relies on assumptions concerning the homogeneity of the responses since counting the frequency with which a particular opinion occurs implies that each occurrence of that opinion is given equal weight.

NUD.IST
A popular computer package for text analysis is QSR NUD.IST (Non numerical Unstructured Data Indexing Searching and Theorising) ‘ a computer package designed to aid users in handling non numerical and unstructured data in qualitative analysis.  One highlights a particular block of text and creates a reference to this block of text under a suitable heading.  The different headings can themselves then be linked conceptual a paradigm sections of text referring to different aspects of the argument.  Phenomenologist generally recommend a more hermeneutic approach to the interpretation of such evidence.

Evidence for Creating a Theory
At this level the evidence-collection process is creative, making it difficult to provide specific and detailed guidelines.  However there are some general principles which may be helpful.

Both primary and secondary sources of evidence should be consulted.
Evidence should be collected from as many different informants as possible.
Informants should where possible represent a spectrum of individuals who may have quite different perspectives on the problem under consideration.  It is important, for example, to involve both top management and relatively junior staff.
All evidence should be corroborated by means of some form of triangulation.

In the process of theory creation the evidence provides the raw material but it is the researcher’s imagination and creative talents which lead to the development and formulation of the theory.

While the evidence is critical, the way in which it is perceived, analysed, synthesised and understood will determine the extent to which it is used effectively.

Understanding and Explaining Phenomena
The non-positivistic or phenomenological research paradigm is discussed in Chapter 6.
Rather, the evidence will be collected in order to achieve a greater level of understanding or to develop an explanation of the observed phenomena.
Evidence Collection ; Planning and Design
Whatever research strategy and tactics are used, the quality of the evidence will be improved if the research is well planned and designed.
How to obtain access? In particular, how will the researcher gain acceptance to/by the organisations required and not be seen as an inconvenience?
How to be introduced to the right people in the organisation?
        Specifically the researcher needs to find out who are the gatekeepers to the required evidence and the departments or sections within the orgnisation.

Does the researcher have to collect the evidence personally or can some of it be collected remotely, i.e. by using questionnaires?
What arrangements can be made for triangulation to ensure the integrity of the evidence?
What sources of secondary evidence can these organisations supply?
Can external triangulation by means of, a trade organisation, a bank or a trade union be obtained?

Access to Informants
Sometimes researchers find it difficult to contact organisations directly.
On such occasions the researcher may try to use an intermediary to arrange an introduction.  Members of staff of the university or business school may sometimes be helpful.  Management consultants may be prepared to collaborate with researchers and thus introduce them to the appropriate organisations.
If the researcher offers to help with an in-house project or offers to provide the informants with  a copy of the results of the research, this may improve access to organisations.
Direct Evidence Collection
The golden rule is never to force the pace by trying to obtain more evidence than is naturally and comfortably offered.

Indirect Evidence Collection
E-mail is a form of asynchronous communication and therefore closer to remote evidence collection.
The main drawback of remote evidence collection is that it is difficult, if not impossible, to probe the informant.


However one of the problems associated with the use of the Web is the fact that there are not yet any really hard and fast rules about how to cite references properly.
As a general approach researchers should provide sufficient information about the Web site to enable another person to access the same information subsequently.

The Questionnaire or Measuring Instrument - Dan Remenyi - Chapter Summary

Questionnaire Research

The types of information sought when surveying individuals or objects, such as firms, usually include evidence on demographic and socio-economic variables.
In addition,  evidence is sought on opinions or beliefs related to behaviors, experiences activities and attitudes.
The philosophical attitude that underpins the use of a questionnaire for the purposes of evidence collection is that there exists a generalisable public opinion that is available to be tested through the use of these sorts of questions.

Questionnaire Design
The point of departure in the design of a questionnaire is a clearly defined problem and explicit terms of reference and objectives.
There should be no ambiguity about the purpose of the study.  That is, it is important to be clear about the phenomenon to be described and/or explained and the hypotheses to be tested.  Once this has been achieved it will be possible to identify and define the concepts to be measured and how these are to be measured.  At this point the first draft of the questionnaire can be designed.

The draft questionnaire is the product of qualitative research.  This qualitative component is likely to include a search of the academic, trade and professional literature as well as the use of interviews, brainstorming and focus groups.  Internalisation of how others have undertaken questionnaire-based research can be beneficial.

The use of existing questionnaires or questions from them is permissible but it is important to establish where the copyright for these resides.

Pre-testing the Questionnaire
Pre-testing of the questionnaire needs to be undertaken before it is finally administered.
Approaches to pre-testing can be fairly informal where one consults friends, colleagues, experts and people of diverse opinions, or it could be more formal, involving a pilot study which is a replication, on a small scale, of the main study.
Ideally the research candidate should attempt to ensure that the measuring instrument is pre-tested as far as possible.

Types of Questions
Questions can be either open ended or closed ended.
The type of question chosen has implications for the type of evidence that can be obtained and therefore on the method of analysis of the evidence.

Open-ended Questions
Open-ended questions are typically used in exploratory studies where the researcher is not in a position or is not willing to pre-specify the response categories.
The response is in the form of a narrative which has to be analysed qualitatively, but which may be converted into a form suitable for quantitative analysis.
A popular technique for analysing narrative is content analysis.

A disadvantage of open-ended questions is that they require the respondent to be articulate and willing to spend time on giving a full answer to the question.
Questions of this type are typically used in personal interview surveys involving small samples.

Closed – ended Questions
Closed-ended questions are typically used in quantitative studies.
The assumption is that detailed knowledge is available on the attributes of interest and therefore it is possible to pre-specify the categories of response.  These can be pre-coded so as to be amenable to computer analysis using statistical packages such as SPSS and SAS, which are two of the more popular systems used to analyse questionnaire- based evidence.

Closed-ended questions are difficult to design but simplify the collection and analysis of evidence making the task of the respondent easier.  Such questions are typically used in studies involving large samples.

Measurement Considerations
Questionnaire responses can be quantified by assigning numbers to the responses according to a given set of rules.
This is what is understood by measurement.  
While those variables measured at the interval or ratio level are referred to as quantitative variables.

Nominal Scales
These numbers are no more than labels, and no ordering is implied.
Therefore, the only meaningful quantitative analysis that can be performed on such evidence is to determine the frequency (or relative frequency) of occurrence of responses in each of the categories.

Ordinal Scales

Numbers have no meaning and it is meaningful to compute such non-parametric statistics as the median, quartiles and rank correlations.

Interval scales
Pearson’s correlation coefficient.

Rating scales, such as the questions in  Part B in Appendix B, are strictly.
 However, in practice, especially in the marketing area, these are treated as being measured at the interval level.
In fact, the more categories.

Structure of the Questionnaire

Questionnaires usually comprise sections.
Typically these sections provide information through asking questions of the following types.
Background Questions
Background questions provide demographic and socio-economic information on the individual or firm.
At the individual level these include evidence on age, gender, occupation, income, education level, while at the level of the firm it can include evidence on the industry in which the firm operates, the number of staff employed, their turnover and position in the company. All of part A of the questionnaire in Appendix B collects typical background information.

Attitudinal Questions
Attitudinal questions provide information on the strength of feeling or opinion about objects, issues, activities and interests.  For example, one may wish to determine the attitude of respondents towards privatisation, their jobs, management, internal marketing, computer-assisted learning techniques and so on.  Attitudes can be measured through the use of single-item rating scales and multiple-items rating scales.  Single-item scales are applied when a single question is used to measure the construct of interest whereas multiple-items scales are applied when two or more questions are used to measure the construct. The most popular approach is to use a 5,7 or 9 point rating scale.                                                                                                                                                                
Single-item Scale
In practice a minimum of three items is normally required.

Activity and Usage Questions
Activity and usage questions provide information on the extent of involvement in activities such as water sports, radio listening, surfing the Internet and so on.

Sequencing of Questions
It is generally agreed that the best way in which to order the questions is to place general questions first, followed by specific questions and then attitudinal questions.  Hard questions should be placed fairly early and interspersed with easy questions.  Further, there is a need to ensure that the questions are structured in such a way that the respondent will find it easy to answer questions within a topic, and also not be burdened with questions that are irrelevant to him or her.

Funnel Questions
Funnel questions are used to provide a sequence within a particular topic using a set of questions in which each question is related to the previous question with successive questions having a progressively narrower focus.

Filter Questions
Filter questions are used to exclude the respondent from being asked questions that are irrelevant to him or her.

Questionnaire Administration
Methods for collecting evidence fall into two categories: self-completion and interviews.
Self-completion methods include mailed and computerised questionnaires.  Interview methods include personal or face-to-face interviews, and telephone interviews.  There are advantages and disadvantages associated with each of the methods.
Mailed Questionnaires
Mailed questionnaires allow one to obtain a large sample with wide coverage, at a relatively low cost.  It allows the respondent to complete the questionnaire in his or her own time, thereby ensuring that the responses are free from possible interviewer influence.
It will invariably guarantee anonymity to the respondent and offer incentives such as a copy of the final report.  A good covering letter can contribute significantly to increasing the response rate.

Preferably not taking more than 20 minutes to complete.  These factors are also important determinants of the response rate.
For a large survey, a response rate of 60 per cent is seen to be exemplary.  Response rates as low as 1 per cent have been reported.

Computer-Administered Questionnaires
Disadvantages of this approach include the sample being restricted to users of the network and the complexities of designing and programming the questionnaire, which is likely to require considerable time and money.

Telephone Interview Questionnaires
It is possibly the most used method at present.
Despite most households  having telephones, a sizeable number have unlisted numbers- in excess of 60 per cent in some areas.  Omission of these from the sampling frame can result in serious response bias error.
This problem has, to a large extent, been overcome by the use of random digit dialing.

It is important that the interviewee be convinced that the approach is genuine and that the interview will be short.  The latter requires that the questions be brief, simple and focused.  If open-ended questions are used, it is strongly advised that such questions do not exceed fifteen words and that the interviewee not be excepted to give lengthy answers.
For closed-ended questions the number of precoded options presented to the interviewee should not exceed five and these, should in no way be ambiguous.
Response rates for telephone interviews are typically in the range from 35 per cent to 75 per cent.

Personal Interview Questionnaires
It provides an opportunity to probe complex issues in a relaxed atmosphere.  Response rates are higher than for other approaches, typically between 50 and 80 per cent.

A Checklist for Using Questionnaires
The following is a step-by-step guide to conducting a survey in a firm.
Determine sample size and sample frame Calculate the response rate and then use this to decide on the required sample size.  The mathematics required for this is discussed in Chapter 12.
Produce questions focus groups of six to ten informants to identify the key issues to be addressed by the survey and from these develop a list of appropriated questions.

Questionnaire layout  of an appropriate scale, structure, layout, length and wording.
Conduct a pre-test Perform a pre-test using the questionnaire to determine initial responses.  If a pilot study is used this may encompass between 50 or so individuals.
Revise the questionnaire Using the results of the pre-test and or pilot study, revise the questionnaire so that it focuses more closely on the key issues.

Collect results It may be possible to discard partially complete questionnaires in favour of complete ones, depending on the response rate achieved.
Edit and code result The results of the questionnaires should be coded appropriately, in order to make analysis and interpretation easier.  Sometimes some editing has to be performed.
Analyse and interpret  The coded results should be analysed to determine the overall results of the survey.  Careful analysis will reveal whether the survey was successful.

The Sample - Dan Remenyi - Chapter Summary

Definition of a Sample
The sample normally comes from a larger group of individuals or objects, called the target population.

Choice of Sampling Frame
To obtain a working definition of the population to be studied, which constitutes the sampling frame.
The Electoral register, the ‘Yellow Pages’ telephone directory, or companies listed on the New York stock exchange.

Types of Sample
Sampling techniques fall into two broad categories, namely non-probability samples, which are the domain of the phenomenologist, and probability samples, which are used by the positivistic researcher.   Examples of nonprobability samples include convenience samples, judgment samples, quota samples and snowball samples.

In probability sampling the assumption is that each individual  or element of the population has a known, not necessarily equal, probability of being selected.  Examples of probability sampling include simple random sampling.  systematic sampling, stratified sampling, cluster sampling, and multi-stage sampling.  Probability samples can be rigorously analysed by means of statistical techniques.

Non-Probability Samples
From the point of view of phenomenologist, the selection of a random sample is seldom if ever relevant.
Non-probability samples are particularly relevant in exploratory research.  The more popular non-probability sampling methods are described below.

Convenience Samples
Convenience samples comprise those individuals or organisations that are most readily available to participate in the study.

Judgment Samples
Judgment samples, also called purposive samples, are samples where individuals are selected with a specific purpose in mind, such as their likelihood of representing best practice in a particular issue. The composition of such a sample is not made with the aim of it being statistically representative of the population.  This approach is extensively used in the exploratory research stage.
 
Snowball Samples
A snowball sample is one where the researcher uses an informant to help him or her find the next informant.  Sometimes this is the only way in which a researcher will obtain access to appropriate informants.

Probability Samples
In obtaining a probability sample, use is made of some random procedure for the selection of the individuals or organisations.  This is done in an attempt to remove the possibility of selection bias.

Simple Random Sampling
In simple random sampling each member of the population should have an equal chance of being selected.  This can be achieved by numbering the individuals in the sampling frame, and then selecting from these using some random procedure produced manually or on a computer.

Should there be some pattern present in the sampling frame, then such samples will be biased.  For example, a systematic sample from the daily sales of a supermarket could result in picking out sales figures for Saturdays only.

Stratified  Sampling
In stratified sampling the population is subdivided into homogeneous groups, called strata, prior to sampling.  Random samples are then drawn from each of the strata and the aggregate forms the stratified sample.  This can be done in one of two ways:  
   The overall sample size n can comprise items such that
     the number of items from each stratum will be in
     proportion to the size of the stratum.
   The overall sample size can comprise items from each    
     stratum where the number of items from each of the
     strata are determined according to the relative
     variability of the items within each of the strata.
   
Cluster Sampling
In cluster sampling, the population is considered to be made up of groups, called clusters, where the clusters are naturally formed groups such as companies, or locational units.
A cluster sample from a large organisation could be achieved by treating the various departments of a company as the clusters.  A random sample of departments could then be chosen and all individuals in the departments sampled.  In other words a census of the selected departments (clusters) is performed.

Multi-Stage Sampling
An extension of cluster sampling is multi-stage sampling.  The simplest multi-stage sample involves random selection of the clusters in the first stage, followed by a random selection of items from each of the selected clusters.  This is called two-stage sampling.  More complex designs involve more than two stages.
Size of Sample
Type of sample, variability in the population, time, costs, accuracy of estimates required, and confidence with which generalisations to the population are made.


Statistical Determination of Sample Size
The first situation concerns how to determine the sample size for estimating a population mean to a specified margin of error, or accuracy, with a specified level of confidence
.
The second situation shows how to determine the sample size needed to estimate a population proportion (or percentage) to a  specified margin of error, or accuracy, within a specified level of confidence.

Sample size to Estimate the Mean
The question is now what size of sample is needed to be 95 per cent confident that the sample mean will be within E units of the true mean, where the unit of measurement of E can be in, say, seconds or  minutes? E is therefore the accuracy required from the estimate.  Under the assumption that the population from which the sample is being made is very large, the sample size is given by:  
n  =    4σ ²
                              E ²                (1)
                   

Where σ is the population standard deviation of response times.  In practice σ is inevitably unknown and will have to be estimated.  This can be done by using response times for a pilot sample of size nр’ say, in the sample standard deviation formula:
S=         Σ(χ¡ -  m) ²
    n p – 1
               S R = max(χ¡ ) - min(χ¡ )  = range(χ¡ )
                               4                                4

Some texts suggest division by 6.  Of course a purely subjective estimate of σ is also possible. Level of 99 per cent, then the sample size is given by:

N = 9 σ ²
     E ²

Where σ can be estimated as described above.

Sample Size to estimate a Percentage
Suppose a firm wished to estimate the actual percentage, p, say, of its customers who purchase software from a competing company.

                           n =  4p(100 – p )  
                                     E ²
Where p can be estimated as described above.

The caveat in this case is that p is not known, as it is the parameter being estimated.  In practice the value of p used in the above formula can be estimated in a number of ways.  It can be estimated subjectively, i.e. guessed or it can be taken from a pilot sample or taken to be 50 per cent.  The latter results in the most conservative sample size estimate.

For a 99 per cent confidence level.

n = 9p(100-p)
E²
Where p can be estimated as described above.

Grounded Theory Approach - Videos

Glaser and Strauss - Grounded Theory - Chapter 2 - Generating Theory - Quotations and Summary

The Creation of Theory:A Recent Application of the Grounded Theory Method 

by Naresh R. Pandit

The Qualitative Report, Volume 2, Number 4, December, 1996

(http://www.nova.edu/ssss/QR/QR2-4/pandit.html)

http://www.nova.edu/ssss/QR/QR2-4/pandit.html

Pandit's Ph.d thesis used grounded theory method to develop theory on corporate turnaround.

Prof Tony Bryant

_____________________

_____________________


http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=fmWKf5L0mfA
Video uploaded by Leeds Metropolitan University






Discovering Theory of Organizational Indifference: A Grounded
Theory Strategy
European Journal of Scientific Research
ISSN 1450-216X Vol.40 No.3 (2010), pp.450-460
http://www.eurojournals.com/ejsr_40_3_13.pdf

Phd Thesis

The Effects of Organizational Culture on Marketing Programs: Grounded Theory Approach
University St. Thomas, Minnesota, 2011
http://ir.stthomas.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1002&context=caps_ed_orgdev_docdiss



A good explanatory paper on grounded theory with good case examples
George Allan, The Use of Grounded Theory as a Research Method - Warts and All
Second paper in European Conference on Research Methodology in Business and Management, 2003
Google Book Link with Preview facility
http://books.google.co.in/books?id=ln-dxm6xxFAC

Knol 4808

Writing up the Research - Dan Remenyi - Chapter Summary

A doctoral degree requires that the work conducted by the candidate has added significantly to the body of knowledge.  A doctoral dissertation would generally require between 200 and 400 pages.  This represents approximately 50,000 to 100,000 words.  More than 500 pages are sometimes sent back by examiners to be shortened.

Suggested List of Chapters

Introduction
Literature Review
Research questions
Methodology
Evidence collection and analysis
Interpretation
Summary and conclusion



Strategies for Writing Up the Thesis

The first, which is sometimes called the final lap approach, is to collect all the literature references, all the evidence and the analysis, and then write the dissertation.  Here the writing is done as a single task at the end of the research process when all the other contributory work has been completed.


The second strategy is to write up the work as it is an progress and to begin as soon as the research has been started.  This approach is recommended in most cases as it makes more manageable the time-consuming and difficult task of writing.  Whichever strategy is chosen it is important for the research candidate to keep detailed records of literature which has been read and quotations which will be used, as well as a concise record of the evidence collected.  The better the recording of the research work in progress, the easier the writing of the final dissertation will be.

When to Finalise the Dissertation

In practical terms the research is ready to be finalised when the supervisor or promoter agrees that the candidate has achieved the research objectives.

Clearly these decisions are subjective and depend on the standards set by the institution at which the degree is being done.  If the candidate has already had papers published or accepted for publication in referred journals, has presented his or her work at academic conferences, presented seminars to peers or to faculty, or has had a book on the research accepted for publication, these would be clear indicators that he or she is in a position to finalise the dissertation.

Producing Academic Papers on the Way

At the doctoral level a research candidate may be able to write two or three papers.  For example, at doctoral level the candidate might write a theoretical paper relating to the conceptualisation of the research problem, a paper discussing some element of the methodology and the evidence collection, and a paper which reports on the research findings.  It is important for doctoral candidates to have published in peer-reviewed journals and they should attempt to write up the key aspects of their work for publication in academic journals.

Fundamentals


Relevance, Rigour and Impact

Relevance refers to the requirement that the academic paper should address issues which are of interest to the target audience of the journal.  Rigour is concerned with whether or not the research reported in the paper has been carried out using an appropriate and sound research methodology.  The issue of impact concerns the reasons why top scholars or practitioners would be interested in the paper and motivated to read it and this requires a high degree of originality.

Finalising the Dissertation

It is necessary to produce the dissertation in a bound and final form.  If the dissertation has to be written from scratch, then writing the final document may take several months and the time needed should not be underestimated.

It is useful for the research candidate to obtain informal reviews of his or her work from friends and colleagues.

To make additions to the work, even if the dissertation is fully accepted, and these need to be completed as soon as possible while the subject is still fresh in the candidate’s mind.

Evaluation of Masters and Doctoral Degrees - Dan Remenyi - Chapter Summary

To obtain a doctorate a candidate needs to have undertaken a substantial programme of original research and in so doing produce a dissertation which makes a valuable contribution to the body of knowledge.   It is often said that a doctorate will normally add only a grain of new knowledge to an already established mountain.

To achieve this it is essential that the researcher be fully conversant with the wide range of research methodologies available,

In his/her thesis, the candidate is required to show ability to conduct an original investigation, to test ideas (whether his/ her own or those of others) and to demonstrate a broad knowledge and understanding of his or her discipline and of appropriate cognate subjects.   He or she should also demonstrate a knowledge of the research techniques appropriate to his/her discipline and cognate subjects and show that they have been successfully applied.



The dissertation should make a distinct contribution to knowledge and provide evidence of the candidate’s originality by the discovery of new facts or the exercise or critical power.  The candidate is required to show appropriate ability in the organisation and presentation of his/her material in the dissertation, which should be satisfactory as regards clarity of expression and literary form.  It should be  suitable for publication, either as submitted or suitably abridged.

Viva voce, from the Latin for ‘the living voice’, is generally regarded as the most challenging test for the candidate.  Furthermore, the candidate may need to defend his or her ideas and conclusions to a sceptical and critical examiner.

Candidates may also benchmark their work against other dissertations that have already been awarded a degree.

Evaluation Approach

This is especially true where a doctoral degree is seen as an apprenticeship in research.  Thus the dissertation needs to be well written, well argued and illustrated with appropriate figures and tables in order to prove convincingly the case being presented.
‘Is the dissertation ready to go on to the university library shelf?


Evaluating a Doctorate Degree
The central issue in evaluating a doctoral dissertation is whether or not the work has added something of value to the body of knowledge.  Expressed slightly differently, the doctoral candidate needs to make a theoretical contribution to  the subject that will hold up under the detailed scrutiny of the internal and external examiners. Creative synthesis of evidence and theory.

In the context of business and management research the contribution should also be of practical relevance to business orgnisations.
The dissertation of a doctoral candidate should show evidence that he of she is familiar with all the literature and all the arguments relating to the issues being researched.  The doctoral dissertation needs to focus on relevant material and synthesise the more important issues.


The candidate should know as much about the topic as anyone else, including the examiners.  Thus the candidate’s reading needs to be fully up to date.  In addition, the candidate must show a distinctly critical faculty in discussing the strengths and weakness of this body of literature.

A doctoral dissertation needs to express clearly a distinct point of view, which some scholars refer to as new insights or a new  vision of the subject matter being studied or researched.  The researcher should be able to demonstrate convincingly why this point of view should be regarded as important as well as being able to argue for its validity.
A doctoral dissertation in the business and management studies area should directly address the implications of the research for management.  It needs to establish that the findings of the research are relevant to current management problems or opportunities.
Quality  versus Quantity
Most of the thesis are above 200 pages.   On the other hand, documents in excess of 500 pages are generally regarded as being too lengthy and probably verbose.

Details that Examiners Inspect Closely
Examiners look for a considerable amount of detail in each chapter of a dissertation.

Introduction
It is important that the introduction captures the imagination of the reader by showing why the subject is important and thus worthy of the award of a degree.  Examiners will look for a comprehensive presentation of the background to the problem, which should include a clear and convincing argument that the subject of the research is topical, relevant and important.  In business and management research this implies that the work will lead to the development of guidelines which will be of direct use in business and management situations.  The introduction should include key definitions, a brief description of the research tasks, indicating the steps to be followed through the dissertation, and an outline of the main conclusions.

Literature Review
The literature review is of considerable importance and needs to be through and exhaustive.  The references should be taken primarily from the leading academic journals and not from general textbooks.  References to relevant textbooks or even to articles in the popular press are acceptable, but these should be kept to a minimum. References should be made to both theoretical and empirical issues pertaining to the research topic.  All references cited should be complete and should comply with the convention accepted by the university concerned.   The candidate should not simply regurgitate the ideas from the literature but is expected to evaluate and comment on them critically but constructively.  There should not be too many direct quotes from referenced works.  This is a central requirement, especially for a doctoral degree.  This model could be presented as either a narrative or graphical presentation, or both.

Research Questions
The research questions need to be directly related to the conceptual model developed from the literature review referred to above.  In a clear way and be easily operationalised .  If too many issues are covered; in some circumstances one research question may be perfectly adequate.  Research questions should be focused so they will have to lead to a theoretical conjecture or to hypotheses or empirical generalisations.

Methodology
The question of methodology is complex and there are many different views.
It is critical to spell out the philosophical approach being used to underpin the research.   The two main philosophical stances used in academic research are positivism and phenolenology and within these there are a number of different research strategies.

This chapter should include a full description of the process used to gather both primary and secondary evidence, which will normally be both qualitative and quantitative in nature.

Evidence Collection and Analysis
The questions asked here frequently relate to sampling procedures and instrumentation.  Where case studies have been used it is important to state why the particular orgnisations were chosen to be studied.  Examiners will consider the rigour with which this has been done.  They need to comply with accepted practice in the discipline being researched.

The results of the interpretation or the analysis need to be presented using traditional presentation techniques, such as tables, graphs, etc.  Key to assessing the validity of the findings from the research.  Any problems encountered in dealing with the above issues should be stated, together with an explanation as to how they were overcome.

Interpretation
Some specific interpretations of the results.
It is essential that the interpretation or the findings are consistent with the analysis.  Model, to the evidence, to the analysis, and then to the findings. Examiners look to see if the findings constitute a clear contribution to the field of study.  Thus the question,’ Are the findings useful?’, is frequently asked.

Failing to confirm a theory or hypothesis can be just as valuable as confirmation, and it could lead to the development of a new theory.  Senior degrees may be awarded even where the candidate has not confirmed his or her hypothesis, provided a contribution has been made to the body of knowledge.

Summary and Conclusion of the Dissertation
The conclusions should finish with a statement of the positive aspects of the research work, even if the research did not support the original model or beliefs.

The Limitations of the Research
This is an important chapter and even a relatively weak dissertation can be substantially strengthened by an insightful account of the research at this stage.

Management Guidelines or Recommendations
In this final chapter of a dissertation the findings are restructured in terms of practical guidelines which can be used by managers in order to improve their performance in working situations.


Source

Doing Research in Business and Management - Dan Remenyi et al.

Research in Industrial Engineering - Opportunity at NITIE - 2013

If you are interested in doing doctoral  research in any of the following areas visit the www.nitie.edu

Advertisemement http://www.nitie.edu/NITIE%20Advt27Feb1.pdf





Human Effort Engineering - Techniques

1. Principles of Motion Economy
2. Motion Study
3. Workstation Design
4. Application of Ergonomics and Biomechanics
5. Fatigue Studies
6. Productivity/Safety/Comfort Device Design
7. Standardization of  Methods
8. Operator training
9. Incentive Systems
10. Job Evaluation
11. Learning effect capture
12. Work Measurement


EFFICIENCY IMPROVEMENT TECHNIQUES OF INDUSTRIAL ENGINEERING


1. Process Analysis
2. Operation Analysis
3. Layout Efficiency Analysis
4. Value engineering
5. Statistical quality control
6. Statistical inventory control and ABC Classification Based Inventory Sytems
7. Six sigma
8. Operations research
9. Variety reduction
10. Standardization
11. Incentive schemes
12. Waste reduction or elimination
13. Activity based management
14. Business process improvement
15. Fatigue analysis and reduction
16. Engineering economy analysis
17. Learning effect capture and continuous improvement (Kaizen, Quality circles and suggestion schemes)
18. Standard costing


Functional Solutions

1.Warehouse efficiency improvement
2. Warehouse 5S
3. Warehouse human effort engineering
4. Inventory control


You can send a mail to Dr. K.V.S.S. Narayana Rao, Professor, NITIE at kvssnrao55 at gmail.com for more details or clarifications. Post graduate degree with 60% marks in any branch of engineering is required.